India has had a rich agricultural heritage since the time of
Rigveda (c. 8000 BCE). While farmers still follow ancient practices in many
regions, the ‘modern’ agricultural graduates, trained in the agriculture of the
West, are mostly ignorant of our own ancient agricultural practices. Despite
attempts to improve communication between scientists and farmers, the two
groups continue to operate on different wavelengths, and communication gap
continues. It is absolutely necessary for the farm scientists to possess
knowledge of our agricultural heritage in order to effectively communicate with
the majority of farmers.
In the last 15 years, the Asian Agri-History Foundation
(AAHF), Secunderabad, Andhra Pradesh has translated four ancient Sanskrit, one
Persian, one Malayalam, and one old Kannada texts into English, along with
commentaries on the scientific validity of the practices that had been
followed. These texts confirm the richness of knowledge possessed by our
ancestors.
Krishi-Parashara (Agriculture by
Parashara) (c. 400 BCE)
Krishi-Parashara (c. 400 BC) probably is the first-ever
‘textbook’ on agriculture in which the information is logically organized in
chapters. Here are some highlights from Krishi-Parashara. It describes tools
and implements, forecasting rain, importance of good management in agriculture, management
of cattle, seed collection and storage.
The level of knowledge base that we find in Krishi-Parashara
about the plough, production of crops, and management of cattle indicates that
the period of Parashara must have preceded Kautilya (4th century BC) in whose Artha-sastra we see an
undoubtedly superior agricultural knowledge base, including the knowledge of
techniques to irrigate crops from rivers, tanks, and wells. Thus I believe that
Parashara must have written the manuscript prior to Artha-sastra, i.e., prior
to 4th century BC. The pattern of the rainfall
distribution in a season points to the latitudes of 30” to 34°N in the old
Punjab. If we study the total precipitation of the agricultural areas around
Taxila (375-500 mm) and around Sialkot (650-900 mm), both in Pakistan, it would
be tempting to conjecture that Parashara could be covering the latter area,
especially keeping in mind the field crops that he mentions; e.g., rice,
sugarcane, barley, wheat, sesame, black gram, and mustard. These
crops could not have been grown without irrigation in the Taxila region,
whereas these could be raised in the Sialkot region.
Kashyapiyakrishisukti
(A Treatise on Agriculture by Kashyapa) (c. 800 CE)
A copy of the manuscript (No. 38J8) in Devanagari script
exists in the Adyar Library, Chennai, India. Kashyapiyakrishisukti (KKS) was
translated in English in 1985 by G. Wojtilla and was published in Hungary. The
AAHF undertook the present assignment because (i) Wojtilla’s translation is not
easily available; and (ii) the translation was apparently not reviewed by an
agricultural scientist.
The language of KKS is very simple and easy, reminding one of
the languages of Puranas. It has a natural flow. Clarity, ease, fluency, and simplicity
are the characteristics of Kashyapa’s language. Being a work on an applied
science such as agriculture, KKS has on the whole succeeded in systematically
instructing the agriculturist on various issues of farming in a simple
language.
The present text (c. 700–800 CE) is a detailed one covering
not only irrigated rice production in India but also other aspects such as
stressing strong support to agriculture from the ruler, stressing participation
of people of all castes in farm-related activities, cattle management,
describing soil properties, growing pulses on uplands, growing vegetables,
fruits, spice crops, and ornamental plants, growing trees, laying out gardens,
marketing, and even mining. It is indeed an excellent text on agriculture.
Kashyapa has stressed that people who practice agriculture
should possess good values of life. Farmers should be free from jealousies, be
mutually helpful, truthful, compassionate, animal lovers, hospitable to guests,
devoid of anger, laziness, and excessive desires, happy with children and
relatives, loyal to the king, etc.; all these values should be respected by
farmers of all castes. It seems Kashyapa was emphasizing a code of conduct for
achieving happiness while pursuing farming.
According to MS Randhawa, Kashyapa possibly was a resident of
Kosala (Oudh in central Uttar Pradesh). Wojtilla suggests that Kashyapa
followed the ‘Vaishnava’ tradition of South India and wrote the text sometime
during 700 to 800 CE. I find myself in agreement with Wojtilla’s view, although
one must accept the wide knowledge that Kashyapa possessed with regard to
agriculture of several regions of the Indian subcontinent. I would like to
suggest that the main focus of Kashyapa was the Krishna-Godavari deltas and the
adjacent northern regions
Vrikshayurveda
(The Science of Plant Life) by Surapala (c. 1000 CE)
Vrikshayurveda of Surapala (c. 1000 CE),
an ancient Sanskrit text on the science of plant life was a mere name until few
years ago. The names of both the text and the author were preserved by
tradition. The actual text, however, was unavailable. The AAHF procured a
manuscript of Vrikshayurveda of Surapala from the Bodleian Library, Oxford, UK.
The text is an independent, full-fledged work on the subject
of Vrikshayurveda. The following observations proved beyond doubt that such a
branch of learning existed in ancient India. There are frequent references to
this science in ancient Indian literature such as Atharvaveda, Brhatsamhita of
Varahamihira, and Sarngadharapaddhati of Sarangadhara.
The tridhatu theory
of Ayurveda is applied to trees, bushes and other perennials. Vrikshayurveda, which means “The Science of
Plant Life”, mainly deals with various species of trees and their healthy
growth and productivity. The text mentions about 170 species of plants,
including herbs, shrubs, and trees. There are 325 systematically arranged
verses, beginning with a salutation to Lord Ganesha, followed by glorification
of trees, and composition on tree planting and production. Various chapters
deal with the raising of orchards, agri-horticulture, and tree planting near
houses. Special references are made on procuring, preserving, and treatment of
seeds and planting materials; preparation of pits for planting; selection of
land (soil); methods of irrigation and ways to locate groundwater; nourishment
and fertilizers; diseases of plants and plant protection; laying out of gardens
and orchards; creation of agricultural/horticultural wonders; use of plant
species as indicators of crop and animal production; and description of sacred
plants.
The place of horticulture in ecology both at the home garden
scale and at the field scale was well understood, as is evident from references
such as in verse 9: “A person is honored in Heaven for as many thousand years
as the days he resides in a house where tulasi is grown”; or in verse
10: “And if one properly grows bilva (bel), which pleases Lord Siva, in
his family (courtyard), the goddess of riches resides permanently (in his
house) and this (riches) is passed on to his sons and grandsons.” Apparently
the place of trees in environmental maintenance and food chain was well
understood. The saints and philosophers of the time extolled the people to
‘grow more trees’— a slogan that we seem to have rediscovered during the past
few decades.
From the types of soils, plant species, kinds of plant
protection materials, I believe that Surapala was referring to the Bihar-Orissa
region.
Lokopakara (For the Benefit of
People) by Chavundaraya, 1025 CE
The Lokopakara, which meant “for the benefit of common
people”, is a vade mecum of everyday life for commoners and describes topics
such as astrology, portents, vastu (architecture), water-divining, vrikshayurveda
(the science of plant life), perfumery, cookery, veterinary medicine, etc. In
this bulletin, we have selected those topics that are of interest to farmers
residing in rural areas.
The Western Chalukya Kings, with their capital at Kalyani
(near Bidar, Karnataka, India) had a tradition of supporting scholarship and
Chavundaraya II was one such poet-scholar in the court of Jaisimha II
(1015–1042 CE).
The author of Lokopakara is also known as Chavundaraya II.
This is because another Chavundaraya, referred as Chavundaraya I, preceded him
by several decades and was a great minister, Commander-in-Chief, as well as a
litterateur in the court of the Ganga rulers of southern Karnataka.
Chavundaraya I set up the world famous Gommateshwara statue at Shravanbelagola
in Karnataka around 980 CE.
This bulletin is based on a printed Halagannada manuscript
edited in 1950 by H Sesha Iyengar, a copy of which was obtained from the Madras
Government Oriental Manuscripts Library (Adyar Library), Chennai. Since very
few people today understand Halagannada, we requested C K Kumudini, Department
of Kannada Studies, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru to translate
the manuscript into Hosagannada (modern Kannada). The Hosagannada manuscript
was then translated into English by Sri Valmiki Sreenivasa Ayangarya. Three
commentaries have been written; one by Y L Nene, another by Nalini Sadhale and
Shakuntala Dave, and yet another by Umashashi Bhalerao. These commentaries
hopefully would stimulate scholars and researchers to provide notes on the
scientific value of Lokopakara.
The original text contains the
following chapters: Astrological aspects, auspicious and inauspicious time (muhurtas)
for various mundane and religious affairs, vastu (Architecture), portents,
water divining, vrikshayurveda (Ayurveda for plants including trees), perfumes,
recipes for food , medicine for humans and animals, treatment
for snakebite, etc ., characteristics of animals, and omens.
Mriga.pakshi.shastra (The Science
of Animals and Birds) (13th century CE)
This
13th century classic was compiled by a Jain scholar, Hamsadeva on
the advice of King Shaudadeva, who probably ruled the Junagarh area of Gujarat.
It is a detailed description in Sanskrit of more than 170 animals and birds.
Hamsdeva describes the habitat, breeding, and types of many animals and birds.
For example, he describes 6 types of lion; viz. Simha, Mrigendra, Panchasya, Haryaksha, Kesarin, and Hari as
different types and does not consider them as synonyms. Similarly, he describes
3 types of Koel, vanapriya, parabhrita,
and kokila. This classic is yet another proof of the advancements made by our ancestors in the field of biology.
This
Sanskrit text was obtained from the Oriental Institute, Vadodara, Gujarat. This
was translated in English by Dr Nalini Sadhale and commentaries written by Drs
Sadhale and Nene.
Krishi Gita (Agricultural Verses) c. 15th century
This
Malayalam printed text was procured from Adyar Library, Chennai. It is edited
by Vidwan C. Govinda Warriar. AAHF published its Translation in English done by
B Mohan Kumar. Commentaries were written by Mohan Kumar and PK Ramchandran
Nair. This text refers to cultivation of coastal region crops
prior to introductions by Arabs and Portuguese. Soil management involved
tillage, manuring, and avoiding water stagnation and iron toxicity. Agronomy
covered optimum seed rate, time of planting, depth of planting, spacing between
plants and iron toxicity. Agronomy covered optimum seed
rate, time of planting, depth of planting, spacing between plants and
rows.
A large number of rice varieties (135
varieties) for different areas are recommended, indicating availability of
genetic variation. Other crops discussed are arecanut, (8 varieties), Amaranthus (3 varieties), ash gourd (1
variety), banana/plantain (19 varieties), chickpea (2 varieties), betel leaf
(13 varieties), bitter gourd (3 varieties), brinjal (12 varieties), chili (7
varieties), coconut (5 varieties), cotton (2 varieties), cowpea (4 varieties),
Elephant foot-yam (2 varieties), fenugreek (1 variety), yam-Diascoria spp (6 varieties), cocoyam (9
varieties), beans-Dolichos lablab (9
varieties), ivy gourd (3 varieties), lime-Citrus
spp.(4 varieties), maize (8 varieties), oriental pickling melon (2
varieties), pigeonpea (2 varieties), sesame (9 varieties), snake gourd (4
varieties), sugarcane (6 varieties), taro (3 varieties), tobacco (8 varieties),
turmeric (3 varieties), and watermelon (2 varieties).
Vishvavallabha (Dear to the World:
The Science of Plant Life) 1577 CE
In the last few years, some of the rarest texts on
agriculture were discovered, translated into English, and commented upon in the
context of current knowledge of scientific agriculture. Since then another
Sanskrit classic on agriculture, Vishvavallabha (Dear to the World: The Science
of Plant Life), was discovered in the library of the Rajasthan Prachya Vidya
Pratishthan, Jodhpur, Rajasthan. The Asian Agri-History Foundation,
Secunderabad, Andhra Pradesh recently published the English translation and
also discussed utility of the contents for today’s agriculture.
Vishvavallabha was compiled by a scholar, Sri Chakrapani
Mishra, around 1577 CE. Chakrapani worked under the patronage of the towering
personality of Maharana Pratap (1540–1597) of Mewar in Rajasthan. As is
well-known Maharana Pratap refused to surrender or be a vassal of the Mughal
ruler, Akbar and protected his own honor as well as that of his people all
through his life.
The text contains a wealth of information. It describes
methods to detect underground water, construction of water reservoirs, planting
methods, plant disorders and treatments, and plantation in forts.
Nuskha
Dar Fanni-Falahat (The Art of Agriculture) (c. 1650)
This text in Persian was copied from a compendium,
Ganj-e-Badawar, compiled around 1650 CE by the Mughal prince Dara Shikoh, son
of Shah Jahan, who built the famous Taj Mahal.
The text briefly describes the “art” of growing about 100
economic plant species. These include trees (fresh fruit, dry fruit, avenue, and
timber), shrubs of ornamental significance, vegetables, cereals, legumes,
oilseeds, and aromatics. Species are grouped on the basis of similarities and
the general sequence followed is: fresh fruit trees, dry fruit trees,
berry-producing plants, avenue and timber trees, flowering shrubs, plantation
crops, spices, aromatics, cereals, legumes, fiber crops, and vegetables.
However, the sequence has not been followed strictly.
Manures mentioned are dung, salt, and nitre for soil
application in case of palm trees, nitre and vine sap as foliar application in
vines, eggs in soil and olive leaf-sap sprinkling on leaves in fig, dung in
soil in olive, pig’s dung and human urine in soil in pomegranate, night soil,
animal dung, and sheep’s blood in soil in guava [pear (?)], dry dung of pig in
almonds, and cowdung in carrots.
Nitre as a fertilizer was new to the Indian agriculture as no
document before the present one mentioned use of nitre as a manure. This must
be therefore one of the first inorganic fertilizers used in India. The
recommendation to sprinkle nitre on vines must have been based on observing
beneficial effects on growth of vines.
A statement under baqla (Vicia faba L.) is
noteworthy. It is mentioned that roots, branches, and leaves of baqla
“have the qualities of manure and it increases the strength of the manure” and
that is why it is grown as an intercrop. This is a very significant statement
pointing to the beneficial effects of legumes, which we know so well today.
The contents of “Nuskha Dar Fanni-Falahat” are almost totally
different from the earlier, indigenously written texts. It is not difficult to
understand the reason. Historically speaking, the conquerors almost always
despise the conquered. The Portuguese and the British did it and so did the
Mughals. British tried to implant their knowledge and culture in India as
something superior compared to what was indigenous. Mughals did the same.
Because Dara Shikoh was a scholar with an open mind, he tried to encourage
exchange of information between the cultures of West Asia and the Indian
subcontinent. The text “Nuskha Dar Fanni-Falahat” seems to be one such effort.
During the Mughal rule in India from 1526 through 1857, a large number of
persons from West Asia and West Central Asia (e.g., Uzbekistan) settled down in
India, owned land, and practiced agriculture, especially horticulture. Thus in
villages, at the level of farmers, exchange of knowledge was occurring during
the 300-year period. From the sporadic references we find, the Muslims seem to
have specialized in ornamental gardening and in developing excellent fruit
orchards.
Relevance today
There
is a great need to renew interest in astrologically made rainfall predictions,
because the modern meteorology is still imperfect. The two systems could
synergize and lead to better predictions.
In
all these classics, management of soil, water, and other resources have been
stressed. In India we do have excellent crop varieties, but the management is
generally unsatisfactory. As a result the optimum yield potential of varieties
is not exploited. Domestic cattle were cared for as “members of family” and
their management was given a very high priority.
Seed
quality was given highest importance and selling spurious seed was a major
offence. One of the duties of Rajas, kings, and other rulers was to ensure
timely supply of resources to farmers in their kingdoms.
The
science of Vrikshayurveda evolved utilizing the knowledge of Ayurveda, between
600 and 1000 CE. Many recommendations were made in texts such as Surapala’s
Vrikshayurveda, Chavundaraya’s Lokopakara, and Chakrapani Mishra’s
Vishvavallabha. These texts also contain several recommendations to increase
yield, especially the perennial plantation crops such as tea
It
is up to present-day farm scientists to study recommendations of the past and
practice them, if found valid.
****************************************************************************************************
Y L Nene PhD, DSc (hc). Chairman Emeritus & Senior Managing Editor, Asian Agri-History Foundation 47, ICRISAT Colony-1, Brig. Sayeed Road, Secunderabad-500009 AP, INDIA
Republished from KDB- Vol-1, No- 3
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